Aeronautics–An Educator’s Guide with Activities in
Science, Mathematics, and Technology Education is
available in electronic format through NASA
Spacelink–one of the Agency’s electronic resources
specifically developed for use by the educational
Aeronautics–An Educator’s Guide with Activities in
Science, Mathematics, and Technology Education is
available in electronic format through NASA
Spacelink–one of the Agency’s electronic resources
specifically developed for use by the educational
community.
This guide and other NASA education products may
be accessed at the following Address:
http://spacelink.nasa.gov/products
Aeronautics
An Educator’s Guide with Activities
in Science, Mathematics, and
Technology Education
What pilot, astronaut, or aeronautical engineer
didn’t start out with a toy glider?
Aeronautics
An Educator’s Guide with Activities
in Science, Mathematics, and
Technology Education
What pilot, astronaut, or aeronautical engineer
didn’t start out with a toy glider?
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Acknowledgements
Editors
- Pat Biggs
- Ted Huetter
Contributors/Writers
- Charles Anderson
- Pat Biggs
- Deborah Brown
- Steve Culivan
- Sue Ellis
- James Gerard
- Ellen Hardwick
- Norm Poff
- Carla Rosenberg
- Deborah Shearer
- Octavia Tripp
- Ron Ernst
Art Direction and Layout
Special thanks to:
Michelle Davis, Lee Duke, Jim Fitzgerald, Deborah Gallaway, Jane George, Doris Grigsby, Yvonne Kellogg,
Marianne McCarthy, Joan Sanders, Greg Vogt, Deborah Dyer Wahlstrom, and Ralph Winrich. NACA/NASA
aircraft technical drawings by Dennis Calaba and Marco Corona.
This guide was produced at NASA Dryden Flight Research Center, Edwards, CA, with graphics support from
NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA.
Preface
Welcome to the exciting world of aeronautics. The term aeronautics originated in France, and was derived from
the Greek words for “air” and “to sail.” It is the study of flight and the operation of aircraft. This educator guide
explains basic aeronautical concepts, provides a background in the history of aviation, and sets them within the
context of the flight environment (atmosphere, airports, and navigation).
The activities in this guide are designed to be uncomplicated and fun. They have been developed by NASA
Aerospace Education Services Program specialists, who have successfully used them in countless workshops and
student programs around the United States. The activities encourage students to explore the nature of flight, and
experience some real-life applications of mathematics, science, and technology.
How to Use This Guide
supplement the educator’s presentation, serve as reminders, and inspire students to explore their own creativity.
Activities requiring step-by-step assembly include student pages that present the project in a way that can be
understood by pre-literate students.
Each chapter ends with a section listing suggested interdisciplinary activities.
This publication is in the public domain and is not protected by copyright. Permission is not required for
duplication.
Activity Matrix
Activity Matrix
Activity Matrix
Aerospace Technology Enterprise
The NASA Aerospace Technology Enterprise’s charter is to pioneer advanced technologies that will meet the challenges facing air and space transportation,
To benefit fully from the revolution in communication and information technology, we also need a revolution in mobility. To open the space
frontier to new levels of exploration and commercial endeavor, we must reduce cost and increase the reliability and safety of space transportation.
Both the economy and our quality of life depend on a safe, environmentally friendly air transportation system that continues to meet the
demand for rapid, reliable, and affordable movement of people and goods.
maintain U.S. national security and pre-eminence in aerospace technology, and extend the benefit of our innovations throughout our society.
Working with our partners in industry, Government, and academia, we have developed four bold goals to sustain future U.S. leadership in
civil aeronautics and space transportation. These goals are as follows:
• revolutionize aviation;
• advance space transportation;
• pioneer technology innovation; and
• commercialize technology.
Revolutionize Aviation
NASA’s goal to revolutionize aviation will enable the safe, environmentally friendly expansion of aviation in the following areas:
• Increase safety—Make a safe air transportation system even safer by reducing the aircraft accident rate by a factor of 5 within 10 years
and by a factor of 10 within 25 years.
• Reduce emissions—Protect local air quality and our global climate.
• Reduce NOx emissions of future aircraft by 70 percent within 10 years and by 80 percent within 25 years (from the 1996 ICAO Standard
for NOx as the baseline).
• Reduce CO2 emissions of future aircraft by 25 percent and by 50 percent, respectively, in the same timeframes (from 1997 subsonic aircraft
technology as the baseline).
• Reduce noise—Lower the perceived noise levels of future aircraft by a factor of 2 (10 decibels) within 10 years, and by a factor of 4 (20 decibels)
within 25 years. The baseline is 1997 subsonic aircraft technology. The word “perceived” is key to the intended interpretation of this noise reduction
goal. In subjective acoustics, a 10-dB reduction is perceived as “half” as loud, hence, the stated interpretation of the goal.
• Increase capacity—Enable the movement of more air passengers with fewer delays.
• Double the aviation system capacity within 10 years and triple it within 25 years. The baseline is 1997 levels.
• Increase mobility—Enable people to travel faster and farther, anywhere, anytime.
• Reduce intercity door-to-door transportation time by half in 10 years and by two-thirds in 25 years.
• Reduce long-haul transcontinental travel time by half within 25 years.
Advance Space Transportation
NASA’s goal to advance space transportation is to create a safe, affordable highway through the air and into space.
• Mission safety—Radically improve the safety and reliability of space launch systems. Reduce the incidence of crew loss to less than 1 in
10,000 missions (a factor of 40) by 2010 and to less than 1 in 1,000,000 missions (a factor of 100) by 2025.
• Mission affordability—Create an economical highway to space.
• Reduce the cost of delivering a payload to low-Earth orbit (LEO) to $1,000 per pound (a factor of 10) by 2010 and to $100 per pound (an
additional factor of 10) by 2025.
• Reduce the cost of interorbital transfer by a factor of 10 within 15 years and by an additional factor of 10 by 2025.
• Mission reach—Extend our reach in space with faster travel. Reduce the time for planetary missions by a factor of 2 within 15 years and
by a factor of 10 within 25 years.
Pioneer Technology Innovation
NASA’s goal to pioneer technology innovation is to enable a revolution in aerospace systems.
• Engineering innovation—Enable rapid, high-confidence, and cost-efficient design of revolutionary systems.
• Within 10 years, demonstrate advanced, full-life-cycle design and simulation tools, processes, and virtual environments in critical NASA
engineering applications.
• Within 25 years, demonstrate an integrated, high-confidence engineering environment that fully simulates advanced aerospace systems,
their environments, and their missions.
• Technology innovation—Enable fundamentally new aerospace system capabilities and missions.
• Within 10 years, integrate revolutionary technologies to explore fundamentally new aerospace system capabilities and missions.
• Within 25 years, demonstrate new aerospace capabilities and new mission concepts in flight.
Commercialize Technology
The NASA Commercial Technology Program enables the transfer of NASA technologies to the private sector to create jobs, improve productivity,
and increase U.S. competitiveness. NASA provides assistance to a wide variety of companies, with special emphasis on small businesses.
Aeronautics
Background for Educators
“Birds fly, so why can’t I?” That question was
probably first asked by cave dwellers watching a
bird swoop through the air. Perhaps even then,
people understood the advantages of human flight.
The desire to defy gravity and experience the
freedom of flight compelled early attempts to
unravel the mysterious technique the birds had
mastered proficiently.
Piloted flight and the mobility it offered to humankind
would have to wait many centuries. The more
immediate goal of the cave dwellers was survival.
The discovery of fire by early inhabitants helped
assure a permanent place on Earth for descendants.
While a small spark eventually produced the light
and heat of fire, the spark for flight was imagination.
Ironically, the discovery of fire would play a major
role in our first flight. Fire and flight forever changed
the way we lived.
The writings and voices of past civilizations provide
a record of an obsession with flight. The aerial
dreams of early writers are revealed in Roman and
Greek mythology. The mythical father and son team
of Daedalus and Icarus used artificial wings of wax
and bird feathers to escape from Crete. In Greek
mythology, Pegasus was a winged horse. Some
writings contributed significantly to the emerging
science. From the early 1480’s until his death in
1519, the Florentine artist, engineer, and scientist,
Leonardo da Vinci, dreamed of flight and produced
the first drawings for an airplane, helicopter,
ornithopter, and parachute.
In the early 17th century, serious aeronautical
research was conducted by so-called “birdmen” and
“wing flappers.” These early experimenters were
erroneously convinced that wings strapped to a
human body and muscle power were the answer to
flight. Their daring and often dangerous experiments
made scant contributions to aeronautical knowledge
or progress. By the mid-17th century, seriousminded
experimenters had correctly decided that humans would never duplicate bird flight. They
turned their attention to finding a device that would
lift them into the air.
Two French paper makers, Joseph and Etienne
Montgolfier, noting the way smoke from a fire lifted
pieces of charred paper into the air, began experimenting
with paper bags. They held paper bags,
open end downward, over a fire for a while and
then released them. The smoke-filled bags promptly
ascended upward. Smoke, the brothers deduced,
created a lifting force for would-be flyers. Scientists
would later explain that when air is heated, it
becomes less dense, thus creating a buoyant or
lifting force in the surrounding cool air.
On September 19, 1783, a sheep, a rooster, and a
duck were suspended in a basket beneath a
Montgolfier balloon. The cloth and paper balloon
was 17 meters high, and 12 meters in diameter. A
fire was lit, and minutes later the balloon was filled
with hot air; it rose majestically to a height of more
than 500 meters. The farm animals survived the
ordeal and became the first living creatures carried
aloft in a human-made device. The dream of flight
was now the reality of flight. Two months later on
November 21, 1793, two volunteers stepped into
the basket and flew for eight kilometers over Paris,
thereby becoming the world’s first aeronauts. Flying
became practical in lighter-than-air devices, and
balloon mania set in.
Throughout the 19th century, aeronauts experimented
with hydrogen gas-filled balloons and
struggled to devise a method to control them. After
another century of experimenting, the balloon had
become elongated and fitted with propulsion and
steering gear. Ballooning had become a fashionable
sport for the rich, a platform for daring circus acts,
and provided valuable observation posts for the
military. Yet none of this was flying the way birds fly
– fast, exciting, darting, diving, and soaring with no
more than an effortless flick of wings. To escape the
limitations of a floating craft, early researchers
began the search for another, more exciting form of
lift.
A small but dedicated handful of pioneers were
convinced that the future of human flight depended
more on wings and less on smoke and hot air. One
of these early pioneers had an intense interest in the
flight of birds and became obsessed with ways its
principles might be adapted by humans. As early as
1796, Englishman George Cayley conducted basic
research on aerodynamics by attaching bird feathers
to a rotating shaft, thereby building and flying a
model helicopter. In 1804, he built and flew the
world’s first fixed-wing flyable model glider. This
pioneering model used a paper kite wing mounted
on a slender wooden pole. A tail was supported at
the rear of the pole providing horizontal and
vertical control. It was the first true airplane-like
device in history.
In 1849, after years of extensive and persistent
research, Cayley constructed his “boy glider.” This
full-sized heavier-than-air craft lifted a 10 year old
boy a few meters off the ground during two test
runs. Four years later, Sir George Cayley persuaded
his faithful coachman to climb aboard another
glider and make the world’s first piloted flight in a
fixed-wing glider.
In Germany, Otto Lilienthal believed that arched or
curved wings held the secret to the art of flight. In
his Berlin workshop, Lilienthal built test equipment
to measure the amount of lift that various shapes of
wings produced. His work clearly demonstrated the
superior lifting quality of the curved wing. By 1894,
Lilienthal’s unpowered flying machines were
achieving spectacular glides of over 300 meters in
distance. Lilienthal built a 2 1/2 horsepower
carbonic acid gas engine weighing 90 pounds. He
was ready to begin powered glider experiments.
Unfortunately, Lilienthal was killed in an 1896
glider mishap before he could test his power-driven
airplane.
Otto Lilienthal left behind an inspiration and a
warning. If his life’s work proved that we could fly,
then his death was a somber warning. Humans
would have to master the aerodynamics of wings
before flight like the birds could be accomplished
with confidence and safety. His extensive research
and experiments in aviation brought the world
closer to realizing the age-old dream of human
flight.
Lilienthal’s work was carried forward by one of his
students, a Scotsman named Percy Pilcher. Like
Lilienthal, Pilcher built his own four-horsepower
engine in hopes of achieving powered flight.
Ironically, before he could conduct any experiments
with powered flight, Pilcher was killed in a glider
accident during 1899.
As the 19th century drew to a close, aviation
pioneers continued to probe the mystery surrounding
mechanical flight. Octave Chanute, Samuel
Langley, and others experimented to produce
further understanding of aeronautical principles and
knowledge, yet controlled, powered flight was not
realized. In 1900, the world waited for a lightweight
power source and a method to control flight.
On May 30, 1899 Wilbur Wright wrote to the
Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. requesting
information about published materials on
aeronautics. By early summer of that year, Wilbur
and his brother Orville had read everything they
could find on the subject. The Wright brothers
began a systematic study of the problem of flight by
conducting research on the methods tried by
previous experimenters. They conducted hundreds
of wind tunnel experiments, engine and propeller
tests, and glider flights to gain the knowledge and
skill needed to fly.
On December 17,1903, four years after beginning
their research, the world was forever changed. A
fragile cloth and wood airplane rose into the air
from a windswept beach at Kitty Hawk, North
Carolina, and flew a distance of 36 meters. The
brothers provided the world with a powered flying
machine controlled by the person it carried aloft.
Ingenuity, persistence, and inventiveness had finally
paid a big dividend–the Wright Flyer was successful.
This 12-second event marked the beginning of
tangible progress in the development of humancarrying,
power-driven airplanes.
By 1905, an improved Wright Flyer could fly more
than 32 kilometers and stay aloft almost 40 minutes.
Five years later, the first international air meet in the
United States was held in Los Angeles, California.
Glenn Curtiss set a new world’s speed record of 88 kilometers per hour and Frenchman Louis Paulhan
set an altitude record of 1250 meters. At the outbreak
of World War I, the airplane could fly at
speeds of over 200 kilometers per hour and reach
altitudes of 7500 meters.
The Congress of the United States recognized that a
new era in transportation was beginning and the
changes would have significant impact on human
interchange, commerce, foreign relations, and
military strategy. Flight research in the United States
got a significant boost in 1915. The National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) was
formed by the United States Congress “to supervise
and direct the scientific study of the problems of
flight, with a view to their practical solutions.”
By the 1930’s, NACA wind tunnels and flight test
investigations led to improvements in aircraft
performance and safety. Research produced new
airfoil or wing shapes and propeller designs that
increased the safety and efficiency of airplanes.
New engine cowlings and aerodynamic streamlining
reduced drag and increased aircraft speed.
Today NACA’s successor, the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA), has a much
broader mission. As its name implies, NASA continues
research to keep aviation on the cutting edge of
technology for airfoils, materials, construction
techniques, engines, propellers, air traffic control,
agriculture development, electronics, efficiency, and
safety. NASA is striving to make airplanes ecologically
safe by lessening the sonic boom for aircraft
traveling at supersonic speeds and developing
propulsion systems that use pollutant-free fuel.
On August 17, 1978 near Paris, France, a hot air
balloon descended from the sky and landed in a
cornfield. Thousands of onlookers watched and
cheered as the three crew members stepped down
from the Double Eagle II. They had just completed
the first nonstop crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in a
balloon. Almost two hundred years earlier in 1783,
Parisians cheered the Montgolfier brothers as they
launched the first hot air balloon. The time span
between the two events is filled with flight milestones
that have taken humankind from the dream
of flight to landing on the moon.
Explain that air power can help airplanes fly.
Construct a working model of an air engine.
Science and Technology
Position and Motion of Objects
Science Process Skills
Making Models
Observing
Mathematics
Math as Problem Solving
Measurement
Background
sustained flight. Remaining aloft longer means the aircraft offers
greater utility and convenience to users. The aircraft engine provides a constant source of thrust to give the airplane forward
movement.
This activity will allow students to build and demonstrate a source
of thrust found in some research aircraft: the rocket engine. The
straw represents the fuselage and the balloon represents the aircraft
engine. Once the balloon is filled with air, there is a difference in
air pressure between the outside and the inside of the balloon.
The inside of the balloon has higher pressure than the outside of
the balloon. The air on the inside of the balloon equalizes with the
air on the outside of the balloon when the balloon is released.
Energy is generated as air equalizes from high pressure areas to
low pressure areas.
The balloon moves in the opposite direction of the flow of the
released air because every action has an opposite and equal
reaction. Since the air is released from one small hole, the release
of the air is focused in one direction. Because it is focused in one
direction, the balloon and straw are forced to move down the
string in the opposite direction.
Materials
Balloon
Drinking straw
Fishing line
Tape
Preparation
1. Place a drinking straw inside a mystery container. Play a game
of 20 questions with the students to see if they can identify
what is in the container.
2. Share with them that what is inside has something to do with
learning about how airplanes fly. After the students have asked
all of the questions, show them the straw inside of the box. Let
them know that they will be using the straw to build a model
of an air engine.
3. Give the students a few minutes to investigate the straw. Give
each student a straw and ask them to describe the straw and
see if they can figure out a way to make the straw travel from
one place to another (e.g., from the desk to the floor, or from
one part of the room to another).
Tell the students that they'll be learning another way to make
the straw move—by making an air engine.
Activity
1. Group students in teams of four and provide each team with a
set of materials.
2. Have the students inflate a balloon and let it go.
Ask the students to make observations about what happened
to the balloons when they were released.
Explain to the students that the balloons move because the air
pressure on the outside and the inside is different. Have the
students observe how the balloons go off in all different
directions.
The balloons will move. The energy inside the balloon
propels it. Tell the students that the movement of
the balloon can be directed toward one place.
3. Now have the students assemble their models.
Have the students place the fishing line through the straw.
One student will hold one end of the fishing line, and the
other end of the fishing line should be tied to the back of a
chair. Then, have the students inflate a balloon with air and
hold the end tight while another team member tapes the
balloon to the straw. Once this is done, the students can
release the balloon nozzle, and observe the
balloon (air engine) as it moves across the fishing line.
Have each team tape their engine parts (straw, balloon, and
fishing line) to a piece of paper. Have the students use this to
explain how the activity worked.
(track).
2. Ask the students to explain why the straw moved along the
string. The balloon moves along the string when the air
pressure inside the balloon escapes out of the nozzle. Since
the balloon is taped to the straw, the straw moves with the
balloon when the air is released. Help the students make the
connections between this and airplanes moving through the
air.
3. Ask the students to tell how moving the balloon along the
string is different from how they tried moving the straw in the
pre-activity. In the pre-activity, students did not use directed
air pressure to move the straw. They moved the straw by
throwing it or dropping it. In the air engine activity, the
students move the straw when they focus the air power.
Have the students write how air power helps airplanes fly.
balloons.
2. Have the students make a longer track and record the distance
the engine moves the straw along the track.
3. Have the students make a vertical track and observe how the
air engine moves the straw from the floor to the ceiling.
4. Hold air engine contests to see which team can make the air
engine straw go the farthest distance.
Standards and Skills
Mathematics
Verifying and Interpreting Results
Science Process Skills
Predicting
Observing
Investigating
Interpreting Data
Background
Warm-up
Activity 1. Prepare a table for water spillage by covering it with
newspapers or a drop cloth.
2. Fill an aquarium or other large container with water.
3. Crumple a napkin and stuff it into a plastic cup.
4. Turn the cup upside-down and plunge it completely into the
water. Do not tilt the cup.
5. Remove the cup from the water, and extract the napkin.
6. Observe whether the napkin is wet or dry.
This activity can be done as a teacher demonstration or student
activity. It will take about 15 minutes to complete and there is a
potential for water spillage. Students can work individually or in
pairs.
Extensions
1. Have the students alter variables like cup size, speed, and
angle of insertion and removal, and liquids other than water.
2. Discuss where air pockets can occur: in landfills, underwater
or underground caves, capsized canoes, etc.
3. Brainstorm a list of examples of air taking up space that
students might see in school, at home, or on television:
balloons, bubbles, basketballs, etc.
4. Discuss ways to store air. Space travellers and scuba divers
must store air in tanks.
Understand the effect of air flowing over a curved surface.
Background A change in the speed at which air is flowing will cause a change
in air pressure. Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss scientist in the 18th
century, discovered what is now called Bernoulli's principle: the
pressure in a fluid (gas and liquids) decreases as the speed of the
fluid increases.
Standards and skills
Unifying Concepts and Processes
Science Process Skills
Measuring
Inferring
Predicting
Science as Inquiry
Mathematics
Geometry and Measurement
Problem Solving
Background
century, discovered what is now called Bernoulli's principle: the
pressure in a fluid (gas and liquids) decreases as the speed of the
fluid increases.
moving over the curved top portion of a wing will travel at higher
speed and produce lower pressure than the bottom, creating lift.
Lift is a force caused by the equalization of pressures. Equalization
always occurs from areas of high pressure to low pressure. An
inflated balloon has higher air pressure inside than outside. The
balloon will pop when the pressure difference becomes too great
for the material.
Another example of Bernoulli's principle can be seen using the
paper bag mask. When the student blows through the hole in the
paper bag mask and over the curved surface of the “tongue,"
unequal air pressure will lift the tongue.
Materials Large paper grocery bags
Scissors
Crayons or markers
Notebook or copier paper
Tape or glue
Metric ruler
Preparation Have each student bring a large paper grocery bag from home.
The low pressure of the airflow over
the top of the "tongue" creates lift in
the same way that a wing produces lift.
Crayons or markers
Notebook or copier paper
Tape or glue
Metric ruler
Preparation
student carefully draw small dots where the eyes, nose, and
mouth are located.
2. Remove the bag from the head and draw a face around the
marks made in step 1.
3. Cut out two holes (approximately 2 cm diameter) for the eyes.
4. Cut a hole (approximately 4 cm diameter) for the mouth.
5. To make the tongue, cut a strip of paper, approximately 3 cm
wide and 20 cm long.
6. Tape or glue one end of the tongue inside the bag at the
bottom of the mask’s mouth. Allow the tongue to droop
through the mouth on the outside of the bag.
7. Place the bag over the head and blow through the mouth
hole. Observe the movement of the tongue.
surface of the tongue creates unequal air pressure and a lifting
action. Blowing harder will cause the tongue to move up and
down faster.
2. Attach a lightweight streamer to a fan or air conditioning vent.
Ask the students to observe and describe what happens. How
do the streamers relate to this activity? The same force moves
the tongue and streamers. Lift is caused by air moving over a
curved surface.
3. What are some other common examples of Bernoulli's
principle? Flags waving, sails, an umbrella that becomes
impossible to hold in a strong wind.
2. Write a paragraph or draw a picture to describe what happens
to the paper tongue.
3. Write a paragraph or draw a picture to tell how airplane wings
Assessment
surface of the tongue creates unequal air pressure and a lifting
action. Blowing harder will cause the tongue to move up and
down faster.
2. Attach a lightweight streamer to a fan or air conditioning vent.
Ask the students to observe and describe what happens. How
do the streamers relate to this activity? The same force moves
the tongue and streamers. Lift is caused by air moving over a
curved surface.
3. What are some other common examples of Bernoulli's
principle? Flags waving, sails, an umbrella that becomes
impossible to hold in a strong wind.
Extensions
bags – faces that say something about who they are, or who
they want to be, maybe the face of a friend, relative, or
classmate. The designs may also be abstract, or not human;
consider holiday themes.
Construct and use a simple wind sock.
Measure wind direction and speed using a wind sock.
Physical Science
Science and Technology
Mathematics
Problem Solving
Reasoning
Measurement
Science Process Skills
Observing
Measuring
Background
It is at apered tube of cloth that is held open at one end by a stiff ring.
Wind is directed down the tube, causing the narrow end to point
in the same direction the wind is blowing. Brightly colored wind
socks are used at airports to help pilots determine the wind
direction along the ground. Meteorologists use wind direction to
help predict the weather.
The students will:
Construct and use a simple wind sock.
Measure wind direction and speed using a wind sock.
Materials
Preparation Cut the tissue paper into 28 cm X 28 cm squares before beginning
the activity. One square is needed for each wind sock.
Management The students will need approximately 1 hour to build a wind sock.
It can take several days to monitor wind direction. For younger
students, make one wind sock for the class and use it to record
data on the student page.
Activity 1. Fold a piece of 8 1/2 X 11 inch paper lengthwise to make the
border strip for the wind sock.
2. Form a loop from the strip and tape the ends of the paper
together. Mark the outside edge with the letter A.
1 sheet 8 1/2 X 11 inch printer or copy paper
1 piece tissue paper 28 cm X 28 cm
White glue or paste
Cellophane tape
Scissors
Single-hole paper puncher
1 Paper clip
Metric ruler
1.2 m kite string
Magnetic compass
Wooden dowel
- Ted Huetter
- Rod Waid
Special thanks to:
Michelle Davis, Lee Duke, Jim Fitzgerald, Deborah Gallaway, Jane George, Doris Grigsby, Yvonne Kellogg,
Marianne McCarthy, Joan Sanders, Greg Vogt, Deborah Dyer Wahlstrom, and Ralph Winrich. NACA/NASA
aircraft technical drawings by Dennis Calaba and Marco Corona.
This guide was produced at NASA Dryden Flight Research Center, Edwards, CA, with graphics support from
NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA.
Preface
Welcome to the exciting world of aeronautics. The term aeronautics originated in France, and was derived from
the Greek words for “air” and “to sail.” It is the study of flight and the operation of aircraft. This educator guide
explains basic aeronautical concepts, provides a background in the history of aviation, and sets them within the
context of the flight environment (atmosphere, airports, and navigation).
The activities in this guide are designed to be uncomplicated and fun. They have been developed by NASA
Aerospace Education Services Program specialists, who have successfully used them in countless workshops and
student programs around the United States. The activities encourage students to explore the nature of flight, and
experience some real-life applications of mathematics, science, and technology.
How to Use This Guide
This guide begins with education standards and skills matrices for the classroom activities, a description of the
NASA aeronautics mission, and a brief history of aeronautics. The activities are divided into three chapters: Air
Flight
We Can Fly, You and I
The activities are written for the educator. Each activity begins with (1) objectives, (2) education standards and
skills, and (3) background material for the subject matter in the activity. The activity continues with by step-bystep
instructions (and associated graphics) to help the educator guide students through the activity in the classroom.
Each activity includes “student pages,” easily identified by this icon:
The student pages are as simple as a graphic of the activity, and as advanced as a work sheet. They are meant toNASA aeronautics mission, and a brief history of aeronautics. The activities are divided into three chapters: Air
Flight
We Can Fly, You and I
The activities are written for the educator. Each activity begins with (1) objectives, (2) education standards and
skills, and (3) background material for the subject matter in the activity. The activity continues with by step-bystep
instructions (and associated graphics) to help the educator guide students through the activity in the classroom.
Each activity includes “student pages,” easily identified by this icon:
supplement the educator’s presentation, serve as reminders, and inspire students to explore their own creativity.
Activities requiring step-by-step assembly include student pages that present the project in a way that can be
understood by pre-literate students.
Each chapter ends with a section listing suggested interdisciplinary activities.
This publication is in the public domain and is not protected by copyright. Permission is not required for
duplication.
Activity Matrix
Activity Matrix
Activity Matrix
Aerospace Technology Enterprise
The NASA Aerospace Technology Enterprise’s charter is to pioneer advanced technologies that will meet the challenges facing air and space transportation,
To benefit fully from the revolution in communication and information technology, we also need a revolution in mobility. To open the space
frontier to new levels of exploration and commercial endeavor, we must reduce cost and increase the reliability and safety of space transportation.
Both the economy and our quality of life depend on a safe, environmentally friendly air transportation system that continues to meet the
demand for rapid, reliable, and affordable movement of people and goods.
maintain U.S. national security and pre-eminence in aerospace technology, and extend the benefit of our innovations throughout our society.
Working with our partners in industry, Government, and academia, we have developed four bold goals to sustain future U.S. leadership in
civil aeronautics and space transportation. These goals are as follows:
• revolutionize aviation;
• advance space transportation;
• pioneer technology innovation; and
• commercialize technology.
Revolutionize Aviation
NASA’s goal to revolutionize aviation will enable the safe, environmentally friendly expansion of aviation in the following areas:
• Increase safety—Make a safe air transportation system even safer by reducing the aircraft accident rate by a factor of 5 within 10 years
and by a factor of 10 within 25 years.
• Reduce emissions—Protect local air quality and our global climate.
• Reduce NOx emissions of future aircraft by 70 percent within 10 years and by 80 percent within 25 years (from the 1996 ICAO Standard
for NOx as the baseline).
• Reduce CO2 emissions of future aircraft by 25 percent and by 50 percent, respectively, in the same timeframes (from 1997 subsonic aircraft
technology as the baseline).
• Reduce noise—Lower the perceived noise levels of future aircraft by a factor of 2 (10 decibels) within 10 years, and by a factor of 4 (20 decibels)
within 25 years. The baseline is 1997 subsonic aircraft technology. The word “perceived” is key to the intended interpretation of this noise reduction
goal. In subjective acoustics, a 10-dB reduction is perceived as “half” as loud, hence, the stated interpretation of the goal.
• Increase capacity—Enable the movement of more air passengers with fewer delays.
• Double the aviation system capacity within 10 years and triple it within 25 years. The baseline is 1997 levels.
• Increase mobility—Enable people to travel faster and farther, anywhere, anytime.
• Reduce intercity door-to-door transportation time by half in 10 years and by two-thirds in 25 years.
• Reduce long-haul transcontinental travel time by half within 25 years.
Advance Space Transportation
NASA’s goal to advance space transportation is to create a safe, affordable highway through the air and into space.
• Mission safety—Radically improve the safety and reliability of space launch systems. Reduce the incidence of crew loss to less than 1 in
10,000 missions (a factor of 40) by 2010 and to less than 1 in 1,000,000 missions (a factor of 100) by 2025.
• Mission affordability—Create an economical highway to space.
• Reduce the cost of delivering a payload to low-Earth orbit (LEO) to $1,000 per pound (a factor of 10) by 2010 and to $100 per pound (an
additional factor of 10) by 2025.
• Reduce the cost of interorbital transfer by a factor of 10 within 15 years and by an additional factor of 10 by 2025.
• Mission reach—Extend our reach in space with faster travel. Reduce the time for planetary missions by a factor of 2 within 15 years and
by a factor of 10 within 25 years.
Pioneer Technology Innovation
NASA’s goal to pioneer technology innovation is to enable a revolution in aerospace systems.
• Engineering innovation—Enable rapid, high-confidence, and cost-efficient design of revolutionary systems.
• Within 10 years, demonstrate advanced, full-life-cycle design and simulation tools, processes, and virtual environments in critical NASA
engineering applications.
• Within 25 years, demonstrate an integrated, high-confidence engineering environment that fully simulates advanced aerospace systems,
their environments, and their missions.
• Technology innovation—Enable fundamentally new aerospace system capabilities and missions.
• Within 10 years, integrate revolutionary technologies to explore fundamentally new aerospace system capabilities and missions.
• Within 25 years, demonstrate new aerospace capabilities and new mission concepts in flight.
Commercialize Technology
The NASA Commercial Technology Program enables the transfer of NASA technologies to the private sector to create jobs, improve productivity,
and increase U.S. competitiveness. NASA provides assistance to a wide variety of companies, with special emphasis on small businesses.
Aeronautics
Background for Educators
“Birds fly, so why can’t I?” That question was
probably first asked by cave dwellers watching a
bird swoop through the air. Perhaps even then,
people understood the advantages of human flight.
The desire to defy gravity and experience the
freedom of flight compelled early attempts to
unravel the mysterious technique the birds had
mastered proficiently.
Piloted flight and the mobility it offered to humankind
would have to wait many centuries. The more
immediate goal of the cave dwellers was survival.
The discovery of fire by early inhabitants helped
assure a permanent place on Earth for descendants.
While a small spark eventually produced the light
and heat of fire, the spark for flight was imagination.
Ironically, the discovery of fire would play a major
role in our first flight. Fire and flight forever changed
the way we lived.
The writings and voices of past civilizations provide
a record of an obsession with flight. The aerial
dreams of early writers are revealed in Roman and
Greek mythology. The mythical father and son team
of Daedalus and Icarus used artificial wings of wax
and bird feathers to escape from Crete. In Greek
mythology, Pegasus was a winged horse. Some
writings contributed significantly to the emerging
science. From the early 1480’s until his death in
1519, the Florentine artist, engineer, and scientist,
Leonardo da Vinci, dreamed of flight and produced
the first drawings for an airplane, helicopter,
ornithopter, and parachute.
In the early 17th century, serious aeronautical
research was conducted by so-called “birdmen” and
“wing flappers.” These early experimenters were
erroneously convinced that wings strapped to a
human body and muscle power were the answer to
flight. Their daring and often dangerous experiments
made scant contributions to aeronautical knowledge
or progress. By the mid-17th century, seriousminded
experimenters had correctly decided that humans would never duplicate bird flight. They
turned their attention to finding a device that would
lift them into the air.
Two French paper makers, Joseph and Etienne
Montgolfier, noting the way smoke from a fire lifted
pieces of charred paper into the air, began experimenting
with paper bags. They held paper bags,
open end downward, over a fire for a while and
then released them. The smoke-filled bags promptly
ascended upward. Smoke, the brothers deduced,
created a lifting force for would-be flyers. Scientists
would later explain that when air is heated, it
becomes less dense, thus creating a buoyant or
lifting force in the surrounding cool air.
On September 19, 1783, a sheep, a rooster, and a
duck were suspended in a basket beneath a
Montgolfier balloon. The cloth and paper balloon
was 17 meters high, and 12 meters in diameter. A
fire was lit, and minutes later the balloon was filled
with hot air; it rose majestically to a height of more
than 500 meters. The farm animals survived the
ordeal and became the first living creatures carried
aloft in a human-made device. The dream of flight
was now the reality of flight. Two months later on
November 21, 1793, two volunteers stepped into
the basket and flew for eight kilometers over Paris,
thereby becoming the world’s first aeronauts. Flying
became practical in lighter-than-air devices, and
balloon mania set in.
Throughout the 19th century, aeronauts experimented
with hydrogen gas-filled balloons and
struggled to devise a method to control them. After
another century of experimenting, the balloon had
become elongated and fitted with propulsion and
steering gear. Ballooning had become a fashionable
sport for the rich, a platform for daring circus acts,
and provided valuable observation posts for the
military. Yet none of this was flying the way birds fly
– fast, exciting, darting, diving, and soaring with no
more than an effortless flick of wings. To escape the
limitations of a floating craft, early researchers
began the search for another, more exciting form of
lift.
A small but dedicated handful of pioneers were
convinced that the future of human flight depended
more on wings and less on smoke and hot air. One
of these early pioneers had an intense interest in the
flight of birds and became obsessed with ways its
principles might be adapted by humans. As early as
1796, Englishman George Cayley conducted basic
research on aerodynamics by attaching bird feathers
to a rotating shaft, thereby building and flying a
model helicopter. In 1804, he built and flew the
world’s first fixed-wing flyable model glider. This
pioneering model used a paper kite wing mounted
on a slender wooden pole. A tail was supported at
the rear of the pole providing horizontal and
vertical control. It was the first true airplane-like
device in history.
In 1849, after years of extensive and persistent
research, Cayley constructed his “boy glider.” This
full-sized heavier-than-air craft lifted a 10 year old
boy a few meters off the ground during two test
runs. Four years later, Sir George Cayley persuaded
his faithful coachman to climb aboard another
glider and make the world’s first piloted flight in a
fixed-wing glider.
In Germany, Otto Lilienthal believed that arched or
curved wings held the secret to the art of flight. In
his Berlin workshop, Lilienthal built test equipment
to measure the amount of lift that various shapes of
wings produced. His work clearly demonstrated the
superior lifting quality of the curved wing. By 1894,
Lilienthal’s unpowered flying machines were
achieving spectacular glides of over 300 meters in
distance. Lilienthal built a 2 1/2 horsepower
carbonic acid gas engine weighing 90 pounds. He
was ready to begin powered glider experiments.
Unfortunately, Lilienthal was killed in an 1896
glider mishap before he could test his power-driven
airplane.
Otto Lilienthal left behind an inspiration and a
warning. If his life’s work proved that we could fly,
then his death was a somber warning. Humans
would have to master the aerodynamics of wings
before flight like the birds could be accomplished
with confidence and safety. His extensive research
and experiments in aviation brought the world
closer to realizing the age-old dream of human
flight.
Lilienthal’s work was carried forward by one of his
students, a Scotsman named Percy Pilcher. Like
Lilienthal, Pilcher built his own four-horsepower
engine in hopes of achieving powered flight.
Ironically, before he could conduct any experiments
with powered flight, Pilcher was killed in a glider
accident during 1899.
As the 19th century drew to a close, aviation
pioneers continued to probe the mystery surrounding
mechanical flight. Octave Chanute, Samuel
Langley, and others experimented to produce
further understanding of aeronautical principles and
knowledge, yet controlled, powered flight was not
realized. In 1900, the world waited for a lightweight
power source and a method to control flight.
On May 30, 1899 Wilbur Wright wrote to the
Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. requesting
information about published materials on
aeronautics. By early summer of that year, Wilbur
and his brother Orville had read everything they
could find on the subject. The Wright brothers
began a systematic study of the problem of flight by
conducting research on the methods tried by
previous experimenters. They conducted hundreds
of wind tunnel experiments, engine and propeller
tests, and glider flights to gain the knowledge and
skill needed to fly.
On December 17,1903, four years after beginning
their research, the world was forever changed. A
fragile cloth and wood airplane rose into the air
from a windswept beach at Kitty Hawk, North
Carolina, and flew a distance of 36 meters. The
brothers provided the world with a powered flying
machine controlled by the person it carried aloft.
Ingenuity, persistence, and inventiveness had finally
paid a big dividend–the Wright Flyer was successful.
This 12-second event marked the beginning of
tangible progress in the development of humancarrying,
power-driven airplanes.
By 1905, an improved Wright Flyer could fly more
than 32 kilometers and stay aloft almost 40 minutes.
Five years later, the first international air meet in the
United States was held in Los Angeles, California.
Glenn Curtiss set a new world’s speed record of 88 kilometers per hour and Frenchman Louis Paulhan
set an altitude record of 1250 meters. At the outbreak
of World War I, the airplane could fly at
speeds of over 200 kilometers per hour and reach
altitudes of 7500 meters.
The Congress of the United States recognized that a
new era in transportation was beginning and the
changes would have significant impact on human
interchange, commerce, foreign relations, and
military strategy. Flight research in the United States
got a significant boost in 1915. The National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) was
formed by the United States Congress “to supervise
flight, with a view to their practical solutions.”
By the 1930’s, NACA wind tunnels and flight test
investigations led to improvements in aircraft
performance and safety. Research produced new
airfoil or wing shapes and propeller designs that
increased the safety and efficiency of airplanes.
New engine cowlings and aerodynamic streamlining
reduced drag and increased aircraft speed.
Today NACA’s successor, the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA), has a much
broader mission. As its name implies, NASA continues
research to keep aviation on the cutting edge of
technology for airfoils, materials, construction
techniques, engines, propellers, air traffic control,
agriculture development, electronics, efficiency, and
safety. NASA is striving to make airplanes ecologically
safe by lessening the sonic boom for aircraft
traveling at supersonic speeds and developing
propulsion systems that use pollutant-free fuel.
On August 17, 1978 near Paris, France, a hot air
balloon descended from the sky and landed in a
cornfield. Thousands of onlookers watched and
cheered as the three crew members stepped down
from the Double Eagle II. They had just completed
the first nonstop crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in a
balloon. Almost two hundred years earlier in 1783,
Parisians cheered the Montgolfier brothers as they
launched the first hot air balloon. The time span
between the two events is filled with flight milestones
that have taken humankind from the dream
of flight to landing on the moon.
AIR ENGINES
Objectives The students will:
Observe how unequal pressure creates power.Explain that air power can help airplanes fly.
Construct a working model of an air engine.
Standards and Skills
Science
Science as InquiryScience and Technology
Position and Motion of Objects
Making Models
Observing
Math as Problem Solving
Measurement
Aircraft powered by jet, piston, or rocket engines are capable of
greater utility and convenience to users. The aircraft engine provides a constant source of thrust to give the airplane forward
movement.
This activity will allow students to build and demonstrate a source
of thrust found in some research aircraft: the rocket engine. The
straw represents the fuselage and the balloon represents the aircraft
engine. Once the balloon is filled with air, there is a difference in
air pressure between the outside and the inside of the balloon.
The inside of the balloon has higher pressure than the outside of
the balloon. The air on the inside of the balloon equalizes with the
air on the outside of the balloon when the balloon is released.
Energy is generated as air equalizes from high pressure areas to
low pressure areas.
The balloon moves in the opposite direction of the flow of the
released air because every action has an opposite and equal
reaction. Since the air is released from one small hole, the release
of the air is focused in one direction. Because it is focused in one
direction, the balloon and straw are forced to move down the
string in the opposite direction.
Materials
Balloon
Drinking straw
Fishing line
Tape
Preparation
1. Place a drinking straw inside a mystery container. Play a game
of 20 questions with the students to see if they can identify
what is in the container.
2. Share with them that what is inside has something to do with
learning about how airplanes fly. After the students have asked
all of the questions, show them the straw inside of the box. Let
them know that they will be using the straw to build a model
of an air engine.
3. Give the students a few minutes to investigate the straw. Give
each student a straw and ask them to describe the straw and
see if they can figure out a way to make the straw travel from
one place to another (e.g., from the desk to the floor, or from
one part of the room to another).
Tell the students that they'll be learning another way to make
the straw move—by making an air engine.
Activity
1. Group students in teams of four and provide each team with a
set of materials.
2. Have the students inflate a balloon and let it go.
Ask the students to make observations about what happened
to the balloons when they were released.
Explain to the students that the balloons move because the air
pressure on the outside and the inside is different. Have the
students observe how the balloons go off in all different
directions.
The balloons will move. The energy inside the balloon
propels it. Tell the students that the movement of
the balloon can be directed toward one place.
3. Now have the students assemble their models.
Have the students place the fishing line through the straw.
One student will hold one end of the fishing line, and the
other end of the fishing line should be tied to the back of a
chair. Then, have the students inflate a balloon with air and
hold the end tight while another team member tapes the
balloon to the straw. Once this is done, the students can
release the balloon nozzle, and observe the
balloon (air engine) as it moves across the fishing line.
Have each team tape their engine parts (straw, balloon, and
fishing line) to a piece of paper. Have the students use this to
explain how the activity worked.
Discussion
1. Have the students identify the different parts of the air engine
model: straw (fuselage), balloon (air engine), fishing line(track).
2. Ask the students to explain why the straw moved along the
string. The balloon moves along the string when the air
pressure inside the balloon escapes out of the nozzle. Since
the balloon is taped to the straw, the straw moves with the
balloon when the air is released. Help the students make the
connections between this and airplanes moving through the
air.
3. Ask the students to tell how moving the balloon along the
string is different from how they tried moving the straw in the
pre-activity. In the pre-activity, students did not use directed
air pressure to move the straw. They moved the straw by
throwing it or dropping it. In the air engine activity, the
students move the straw when they focus the air power.
Assessment
Have the students make a drawing of their air engines, and then
write or tell about how the air engine worked.Have the students write how air power helps airplanes fly.
Extensions
1. Have the students construct another air engine model, but this
time let them investigate with different sizes and shapes ofballoons.
2. Have the students make a longer track and record the distance
the engine moves the straw along the track.
3. Have the students make a vertical track and observe how the
air engine moves the straw from the floor to the ceiling.
4. Hold air engine contests to see which team can make the air
engine straw go the farthest distance.
DUNKED NAPKIN
Objectives
The students will:
Experiment to determine if air occupies space.
Experiment to determine if air occupies space.
Standards and Skills
Science
Science as Inquiry
Physical Science
Properties of Objects and Materials
Evidence, Models, and Explanations
Science as Inquiry
Physical Science
Properties of Objects and Materials
Evidence, Models, and Explanations
Mathematics
Verifying and Interpreting Results
Science Process Skills
Predicting
Observing
Investigating
Interpreting Data
Background
Gas, solid, and liquid are states of matter found on Earth. One of
the basic characteristics of matter is that it occupies space. An
observer can "see" a glass of milk sitting on a table. The milk and
table are objects that occupy a measurable part of the total volume
or space in the room.
Although air is present in the room with other matter, a visual aid
is necessary for an observer to "see" that air occupies a portion of
space as well. In this experiment a plastic cup containing air and a
crumpled napkin are turned upside down and placed into a
container of water. Air and water cannot occupy the same space at
the same time, therefore the napkin remains dry.
18 Aeronautics: An Educator’s Guide EG-2002-06-105-HQ
When conducting scientific inquiry, scientists begin by asking
questions about why something is a certain way. In this case,
"does air take up space?" Based on the question, they predict what
the answer is. This is called forming a hypothesis.
The next step is to test the hypothesis with an experiment.
Scientists draw conclusions from the results of their experiment,
which leads them to either accept or reject their hypothesis.
the basic characteristics of matter is that it occupies space. An
observer can "see" a glass of milk sitting on a table. The milk and
table are objects that occupy a measurable part of the total volume
or space in the room.
Although air is present in the room with other matter, a visual aid
is necessary for an observer to "see" that air occupies a portion of
space as well. In this experiment a plastic cup containing air and a
crumpled napkin are turned upside down and placed into a
container of water. Air and water cannot occupy the same space at
the same time, therefore the napkin remains dry.
18 Aeronautics: An Educator’s Guide EG-2002-06-105-HQ
When conducting scientific inquiry, scientists begin by asking
questions about why something is a certain way. In this case,
"does air take up space?" Based on the question, they predict what
the answer is. This is called forming a hypothesis.
The next step is to test the hypothesis with an experiment.
Scientists draw conclusions from the results of their experiment,
which leads them to either accept or reject their hypothesis.
Materials
Clear plastic cup
Napkin
Water
Basin or small aquarium
Newspapers or drop cloth
Balloon
Napkin
Water
Basin or small aquarium
Newspapers or drop cloth
Balloon
Warm-up
Have students discuss what they think air is. Which of the five
senses lets them experience air? Can you taste or smell air?
Probably not. Can they see it? No, but you can see things like a
wind sock blow in the wind.
Can you feel air? Try holding your hand over a heating vent,
fanning your face with a folded paper fan, or whirling around with
a paper lunch bag on your arm. You might not be able to see air,
but you can feel air molecules moving.
Does air take up space? To help students answer this question,
take a deflated balloon and blow air into it so it is partly filled.
Ask them what is in the balloon and then blow up the balloon
until it is full. Is there more air in the balloon now than there was
before? Obviously air takes up space.
The balloon has air in it, but does the cup? In this exercise have
students predict if there is air in the cup and what will happen to a
napkin inside the cup if you put the cup in the basin of water.
senses lets them experience air? Can you taste or smell air?
Probably not. Can they see it? No, but you can see things like a
wind sock blow in the wind.
Can you feel air? Try holding your hand over a heating vent,
fanning your face with a folded paper fan, or whirling around with
a paper lunch bag on your arm. You might not be able to see air,
but you can feel air molecules moving.
Does air take up space? To help students answer this question,
take a deflated balloon and blow air into it so it is partly filled.
Ask them what is in the balloon and then blow up the balloon
until it is full. Is there more air in the balloon now than there was
before? Obviously air takes up space.
The balloon has air in it, but does the cup? In this exercise have
students predict if there is air in the cup and what will happen to a
napkin inside the cup if you put the cup in the basin of water.
Management
Activity 1. Prepare a table for water spillage by covering it with
newspapers or a drop cloth.
2. Fill an aquarium or other large container with water.
3. Crumple a napkin and stuff it into a plastic cup.
4. Turn the cup upside-down and plunge it completely into the
water. Do not tilt the cup.
5. Remove the cup from the water, and extract the napkin.
6. Observe whether the napkin is wet or dry.
This activity can be done as a teacher demonstration or student
activity. It will take about 15 minutes to complete and there is a
potential for water spillage. Students can work individually or in
pairs.
Discussion
1. What is an experiment and why is it conducted? An experiment
is an activity or action designed to answer questions.
2. What is a hypothesis? A hypothesis is a proposed answer to a
problem, or an explanation that accounts for a set of facts and
can be tested by further experimentation and observation.
The results of experimentation provide evidence that may or
may not support the hypothesis.
3. What is a conclusion? A conclusion is an answer based on the
experiment.
4. Why did the napkin stay dry? Air trapped in the cup with the
napkin prevented water from entering the cup.
5. What is air? Air is a mixture of gases that make up the Earth's
atmosphere.
6. Can you taste, see, feel, hear, or smell air? Impurities in air will
allow our senses to detect the presence of air. For example,
smoke contains particles we can see and smell. Moving air
or wind can be felt and heard.
is an activity or action designed to answer questions.
2. What is a hypothesis? A hypothesis is a proposed answer to a
problem, or an explanation that accounts for a set of facts and
can be tested by further experimentation and observation.
The results of experimentation provide evidence that may or
may not support the hypothesis.
3. What is a conclusion? A conclusion is an answer based on the
experiment.
4. Why did the napkin stay dry? Air trapped in the cup with the
napkin prevented water from entering the cup.
5. What is air? Air is a mixture of gases that make up the Earth's
atmosphere.
6. Can you taste, see, feel, hear, or smell air? Impurities in air will
allow our senses to detect the presence of air. For example,
smoke contains particles we can see and smell. Moving air
or wind can be felt and heard.
Assessment
Students will have successfully met the objectives of this
activity by:
Conducting the experiment.
Stating a conclusion based on the experiment.
activity by:
Conducting the experiment.
Stating a conclusion based on the experiment.
Extensions
1. Have the students alter variables like cup size, speed, and
angle of insertion and removal, and liquids other than water.
2. Discuss where air pockets can occur: in landfills, underwater
or underground caves, capsized canoes, etc.
3. Brainstorm a list of examples of air taking up space that
students might see in school, at home, or on television:
balloons, bubbles, basketballs, etc.
4. Discuss ways to store air. Space travellers and scuba divers
must store air in tanks.
Dunked Napkin
This experiment will help answer the question "Does air take up space?"
Materials: Clear plastic cup, napkin, water, basin or small aquarium, and newspaper or
drop cloth
1. Place a drop cloth or newspaper on your work surface. Fill a basin with water.
2. Crumple a napkin and put it at the bottom of the cup. The napkin should fit tightly,
and not fall out when the cup is inverted.
3. Predict what will happen to the water and napkin when you turn the cup so that the
mouth faces downward and place it in the basin of water.
I predict _______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Place the inverted cup into the basin of water. Hold it under water for two minutes and
observe what happens.
5. Write or draw what you saw happen to the napkin. __________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
6. Carefully pull the cup out of the water and remove the napkin. Is the napkin wet or dry?
___________________________________________________________________________
7. Can you explain the results of your experiment? _____________________________
8. Use the results of your experiment to answer this question: Does air take up space?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Materials: Clear plastic cup, napkin, water, basin or small aquarium, and newspaper or
drop cloth
1. Place a drop cloth or newspaper on your work surface. Fill a basin with water.
2. Crumple a napkin and put it at the bottom of the cup. The napkin should fit tightly,
and not fall out when the cup is inverted.
3. Predict what will happen to the water and napkin when you turn the cup so that the
mouth faces downward and place it in the basin of water.
I predict _______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Place the inverted cup into the basin of water. Hold it under water for two minutes and
observe what happens.
5. Write or draw what you saw happen to the napkin. __________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
6. Carefully pull the cup out of the water and remove the napkin. Is the napkin wet or dry?
___________________________________________________________________________
7. Can you explain the results of your experiment? _____________________________
8. Use the results of your experiment to answer this question: Does air take up space?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Dunked Napkin
PAPER BAG MASK
Objective
The students will:
Construct a device that demonstrates Bernoulli's principle.Understand the effect of air flowing over a curved surface.
Background A change in the speed at which air is flowing will cause a change
in air pressure. Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss scientist in the 18th
century, discovered what is now called Bernoulli's principle: the
pressure in a fluid (gas and liquids) decreases as the speed of the
fluid increases.
Standards and skills
Science
Science as InquiryUnifying Concepts and Processes
Science Process Skills
Measuring
Inferring
Predicting
Science as Inquiry
Mathematics
Geometry and Measurement
Problem Solving
Background
A change in the speed at which air is flowing will cause a change
in air pressure. Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss scientist in the 18thcentury, discovered what is now called Bernoulli's principle: the
pressure in a fluid (gas and liquids) decreases as the speed of the
fluid increases.
The wing of an airplane is a device that creates changes in the
speed of air flow, thus creating a change in air pressure. Airmoving over the curved top portion of a wing will travel at higher
speed and produce lower pressure than the bottom, creating lift.
Lift is a force caused by the equalization of pressures. Equalization
always occurs from areas of high pressure to low pressure. An
inflated balloon has higher air pressure inside than outside. The
balloon will pop when the pressure difference becomes too great
for the material.
Another example of Bernoulli's principle can be seen using the
paper bag mask. When the student blows through the hole in the
paper bag mask and over the curved surface of the “tongue,"
unequal air pressure will lift the tongue.
Materials Large paper grocery bags
Scissors
Crayons or markers
Notebook or copier paper
Tape or glue
Metric ruler
Preparation Have each student bring a large paper grocery bag from home.
The low pressure of the airflow over
the top of the "tongue" creates lift in
the same way that a wing produces lift.
Materials
Large paper grocery bags
ScissorsCrayons or markers
Notebook or copier paper
Tape or glue
Metric ruler
Preparation
Have each student bring a large paper grocery bag from home.
Activity
1. Place a bag over the head of one student and have a second
student carefully draw small dots where the eyes, nose, and
mouth are located.
2. Remove the bag from the head and draw a face around the
marks made in step 1.
3. Cut out two holes (approximately 2 cm diameter) for the eyes.
4. Cut a hole (approximately 4 cm diameter) for the mouth.
5. To make the tongue, cut a strip of paper, approximately 3 cm
wide and 20 cm long.
6. Tape or glue one end of the tongue inside the bag at the
bottom of the mask’s mouth. Allow the tongue to droop
through the mouth on the outside of the bag.
7. Place the bag over the head and blow through the mouth
hole. Observe the movement of the tongue.
Discussion
1. Why does the tongue move when you blow gently through the
mouth? What happens when you blow harder? The curvedsurface of the tongue creates unequal air pressure and a lifting
action. Blowing harder will cause the tongue to move up and
down faster.
2. Attach a lightweight streamer to a fan or air conditioning vent.
Ask the students to observe and describe what happens. How
do the streamers relate to this activity? The same force moves
the tongue and streamers. Lift is caused by air moving over a
curved surface.
3. What are some other common examples of Bernoulli's
principle? Flags waving, sails, an umbrella that becomes
impossible to hold in a strong wind.
Assessment 1. Have a classmate observe the paper tongue and record what
happens. Switch roles.2. Write a paragraph or draw a picture to describe what happens
to the paper tongue.
3. Write a paragraph or draw a picture to tell how airplane wings
Assessment
1. Why does the tongue move when you blow gently through the
mouth? What happens when you blow harder? The curvedsurface of the tongue creates unequal air pressure and a lifting
action. Blowing harder will cause the tongue to move up and
down faster.
2. Attach a lightweight streamer to a fan or air conditioning vent.
Ask the students to observe and describe what happens. How
do the streamers relate to this activity? The same force moves
the tongue and streamers. Lift is caused by air moving over a
curved surface.
3. What are some other common examples of Bernoulli's
principle? Flags waving, sails, an umbrella that becomes
impossible to hold in a strong wind.
Extensions
1. Experiment with different tongue lengths.
2. Encourage the students to be creative with the designs on thebags – faces that say something about who they are, or who
they want to be, maybe the face of a friend, relative, or
classmate. The designs may also be abstract, or not human;
consider holiday themes.
WIND IN YOUR SOCKS
Objectives
The students will:Construct and use a simple wind sock.
Measure wind direction and speed using a wind sock.
Standards and Skills
Science
Science as InquiryPhysical Science
Science and Technology
Mathematics
Problem Solving
Reasoning
Measurement
Science Process Skills
Observing
Measuring
Background
A wind sock is a type of kite used to detect wind direction.
Wind is directed down the tube, causing the narrow end to point
in the same direction the wind is blowing. Brightly colored wind
socks are used at airports to help pilots determine the wind
direction along the ground. Meteorologists use wind direction to
help predict the weather.
The students will:
Construct and use a simple wind sock.
Measure wind direction and speed using a wind sock.
Materials
Preparation Cut the tissue paper into 28 cm X 28 cm squares before beginning
the activity. One square is needed for each wind sock.
Management The students will need approximately 1 hour to build a wind sock.
It can take several days to monitor wind direction. For younger
students, make one wind sock for the class and use it to record
data on the student page.
Activity 1. Fold a piece of 8 1/2 X 11 inch paper lengthwise to make the
border strip for the wind sock.
2. Form a loop from the strip and tape the ends of the paper
together. Mark the outside edge with the letter A.
1 sheet 8 1/2 X 11 inch printer or copy paper
1 piece tissue paper 28 cm X 28 cm
White glue or paste
Cellophane tape
Scissors
Single-hole paper puncher
1 Paper clip
Metric ruler
1.2 m kite string
Magnetic compass
Wooden dowel
Preparation Cut the tissue paper into 28 cm X 28 cm squares before beginning
the activity. One square is needed for each wind sock.
Management The students will need approximately 1 hour to build a wind sock.
It can take several days to monitor wind direction. For younger
students, make one wind sock for the class and use it to record
data on the student page.
Activity 1. Fold a piece of 8 1/2 X 11 inch paper lengthwise to make the
2. Form a loop from the strip and tape the ends of the paper
together. Mark the outside edge with the letter A.
3. On the tissue paper use a marker to draw a line 4 cm from
one edge and across the paper. Mark the 4 cm by 28 cm
area with the letter B. (Illustrations shown not to scale.)
4. Beginning along one end of the line drawn in part 3 above,
measure and mark a point 3 cm from the edge. Continue
marking the edge with additional points each separated by a
distance of 3 cm.
5. Repeat step 4 to mark points along the opposite end of the
tissue paper.
6. Using the points, draw a series of lines on the tissue paper.
With scissors, cut along these lines to make strips.
7. Glue edge B of tissue paper to edge A of the loop strip made
in step 2. Allow time for the glue to dry.
8. Use a hole punch to punch three holes equal distance around
the paper ring.
9. Cut 3 pieces of string 30 cm long. Tie one end of each string
to the wind sock at each of the 3 holes.
10. Tie the 3 loose ends of the string to a single paper clip. Add an
additional 30 cm length of string to the paper clip.
11. Test the wind sock by holding the single string in front of a
fan.
12. Tape the wind sock to a wooden dowel and place outside to
monitor wind direction and "speed" (refer to Student Page, the
wind sock "speed" gauge determines the strength of the wind,
but not actual speed). To help determine wind direction, use a
compass to mark north, south, east, and west below the wind
sock (with the dowel in the center).
Discussion
1. What does the wind sock do in the wind? The wind sock
aligns itself with the wind and the strips move toward a
horizontal position.
2. What are some ways wind socks can be used? Pilots preparing
for takeoff or landing observe wind socks to determine wind
direction and speed, because they want to land and takeoff
facing the wind to reduce the takeoff and landing distance.
Meteorologists use wind socks to help forecast the weather.
Some factories that must regulate the amount emissions they
may put into the atmosphere use wind socks monitor wind
conditions, wind speed and direction will have an effect upon
the distance and direction the emissions will travel.
3. Discuss how winds get their names (south, northeast, etc.).
They are named for the direction from which they blow. For
example, a north wind blows from a northerly direction.
Assessment
1. Place a fan on a table, then have students demonstrate wind
direction using the wind sock.
2. Use the activities on the student pages to determine and
record the strength of the wind: calm, a slight breeze, gentle
breeze, moderate breeze, or strong breeze.
Extensions
1. Use garbage bags or nylon fabric instead of tissue paper to
make a wind sock that is more weather resistant.
2. Use different colors of tissue paper to decorate wind socks
3. Make wind socks of different sizes.
4. Place a wind sock in the classroom in different positions and
ask the students to determine if there is air circulation in the
room, and from which direction.
5. Ask the students to write down information about the wind on
a specific day and time. Repeat this activity for several days.
6. In the classroom, obstruct the airflow (using objects, or
students) between the fan and the wind sock and observe how
the wind sock responds. Discuss how objects in nature may
change the flow of wind.
7. Put the wind sock at different distances from the fan
throughout the classroom. Ask the students to observe the
various ways the wind sock responds.
Weather:
How is the weather related to the wind strength and wind direction?
• Make paper spirals and hang them in the classroom. The spirals will
move with the air currents in the room.
• Discuss musical instruments that use the force of air (wind instruments
such as flute, saxophone, oboe, horn, and harmonica).
• Explore objects and materials you can use to move air, such as paper
fans, straws, and pinwheels.
• Determine what devices move air in your home and your school
(examples may include air conditioners, heaters, fans in computers and
other equipment).
Social Studies
• Make a collage showing objects and machines from different cultures
that harness the power of air.
• Invite a person whose job deals with air, such as a meteorologist or a
pilot, to speak to the class about his or her profession.
Windy Day. Compare air in fact and fantasy.
• Keep a journal for a week or two that keeps record of the direction and
force of the wind near your home and/or school. Also add temperature
and air quality. Do different types of weather come from different
directions?
• Write a story about what happens on a very windy day.
• Write a letter to local meteorologists asking questions about air and
weather.
• Place a paper bag on your arm and move your arm back and forth.
• Use a small parachute in the school gymnasium to observe how it
slows down falling objects.
Determine that hot air rises.
Construct a working model of a hot air balloon.
Standards and Skills
Science and Technology
Mathematics
Estimation
Science Process Skills
Communicating
Observing
Background
this activity, students construct a working model of a hot air
balloon.
There are two ways a balloon can rise: it can (1) be filled with a
gas that is lighter than air, such as helium, or (2) it can be inflated
with air that is heated sufficiently to make it "lighter" than the air
outside of the balloon.
Helium is the second-lightest element, and the main sources for
helium are natural gas fields (especially those in the states of Texas,
Oklahoma, and Kansas). Heating air makes it less dense, rendering
it essentially "lighter." Gas balloons and hot air balloons float
because they are lighter than the air they displace.
Plastic bag ("dry cleaners" bag or 5-gallon trash bag)
Paper clips (used for weight)
Small pieces of paper or stickers (decorations)
String
One hair dryer per classroom (heat source)
Party balloons
share what they know about hot air balloons, or what they think
about the uses of hot air balloons.
Show the students a helium balloon. Ask the students to share what they think makes the helium balloon rise when you let go of
the string.
Activity
Plastic bag ("dry cleaners" bag or 5-gallon trash bag)
Paper clips (used for weight)
Small pieces of paper or stickers (decorations)
String
One hair dryer per classroom (heat source)
Party balloons
1. Divide the class into groups of four, and provide each team
with a set of materials.
2. Have the students decorate their plastic bags. Decorations
should be small and light, such as small scraps of paper or
stickers.
3. Have the students tie a string around the top of the plastic bag.
4. Add paper clips evenly spaced around the bottom of the
plastic bag.
5. Have the students hold the plastic bag over the hair dryer (on
the high setting) and let the plastic bag fill with hot air.
6. The plastic bag becomes buoyant as it fills with hot air. When
the students feel the bag tugging, have them release it. The hot
air inside the balloon is lighter than the air in the classroom
and begins to float.
paper clips—weights for balance and stability.
2. Ask the students to explain why the hot air balloon works. The
hot air balloon rises when the air inside the balloon becomes
heated. The heated air is lighter than the classroom air and
enables the balloon to float.
3. Ask the stunts to tell how hot air balloons are different from
balloons filled with helium. Helium is a gas that is lighter than
air, even when it's not heated. Helium though, just like heated
air, floats in the surrounding air because it's lighter. Helium
should not be confused with hydrogen, which is an
inflammable gas that was often used in balloons and airships
until the explosion of the airship Hindenburg in 1937.
4. Have the students inflate a party balloon. Ask them to explain
why it does not rise. A person's breath may be warmer than
room temperature, but it is not hot enough to overcome the
weight of the balloon.
Assessment
Using their actual models, have the students explain why their hot
air balloons rise.
Extensions
1. Have the students construct another hot air balloon using
different sizes and types of plastic bags.
2. Have students experiment with paper clips—different sizes
and numbers—to see the effects of weight on their model
balloons.
3. Have the students research the part that balloons played in the
history of flight.
4. Have the students role play a reporter interviewing one of the
Montgolfier brothers. (Refer to background information
included in this guide about the Montgolfier brothers.)
Unifying Concepts and Processes
Science Process Skills
Observing
Measuring
Predicting
Controlling Variables
Mathematics
Connections
Estimation
Measurement
parawing. Like any wing, the parawing depends
on the movement
of air over its shape to generate a lifting force.(Parasails, parafoils,
and paragliders are similar lift-generating devices.)
The NASA Paraglider Research Vehicle (Paresev) was the first flight
vehicle to use the Francis Regallo-designed parawing.The little
glider was built and flown by NASA during the early 1960's to
evaluate the parawing concept, and to determine its suitability to
replace the parachute randing system on the Gemini spacecraft.
Although the parawing was never used on a spacecraft, it
revolutionized the sport of hang gliding. Hang gliders use a
parawing to glide from cliffs or mountain tops.
There are kites of all shapes, sizes, and colors. The sled kite in this
activity is made from a piece of cloth or paper and two drinking
straws. The straws are attached parallel to each other on opposite
sides of the cloth or paper. This arrangement shapes the kite like a
sled when it catches the air. The string attachment points are
placed toward one end of the kite, which causes the opposite end
to hang downward, and stabilizes the kite in flight.
Materials (per kite)
Sled Kite Template
Two drinking straws
Cellophane tape
Scissors
Two 45 cm lengths of string
One 1 m length of string
Metric ruler
Single-hole paper puncher
One paper clip
Markers, crayons, pencils
Selection of paper (crepe, tissue, newspaper)
Management
Approximately 30 minutes are needed to build the sled kite.
Additional time is needed to allow the students to fly and evaluate
their sled kites outside.
Activity
1. Make a copy of the Sled Kite Template. Carefully cut out the
sled kite.
2. Decorate the top of the sled kite using crayons, markers, or
other media.
3. Trim the length of the two drinking straws so they will fit in
the area marked for the straws. Tape them in place.
4. Place two or three pieces of tape in the marked areas covering
the black circles.
5. Using a single-hole paper puncher, carefully punch the two
holes marked by the black circles.
6. Cut two pieces of kite string 45 cm each. Tie a string through
each hole. Tie them tight enough so you do not tear the
paper.
7. Tie the opposite end of both strings to a paper clip.
8. Pick up the 1 m long piece of string. Tie one end of this string
to the other end of the paper clip. Your sled kite is ready
to fly!
9. Outside in a clear area, hold the 1 m length of string and run
with the kite to make it fly.
10. Run slow and run fast, and observe how the kite flies at
different towing speeds.
Discussion
1. Can kites be used to lift objects? Yes, a popular beach activity
uses a large kite (parasail) towed by a speed boat to lift a
person high into the air.
2. Why are kites made of lightweight material? Lightweight
materials insure the kite will weigh less than the "lift"
produced by the kite.
Assessment
1. Have students explain how their kite was built.
2. Have students demonstrate ways to make the kite fly higher,
and to fly lower.
Extensions
1. Have the students decorate their kite using a minimum of
three colors.
2. Record the length of time for each flight.
3. Have the students run a relay with a kite as a means to sustain
its flight.
4. Design a kite and write the directions on how to build it.
5. Add a tail to the sled kite using crepe paper, strips of
newspaper, tissue paper, or garbage bags. Have students
predict what, if any, changes will occur in the kite's flight
characteristics. Conduct flights to test the predictions.
6. Research the history of kites.
Sled Kite Flight
What happened when I...
1. When I walked with my sled kite, my sled kite:
______________________________________________________________________
2. When I ran with my sled kite, my sled kite:
______________________________________________________________________
Sled Kite Tail, What if...
What if I add a tail to my sled kite? I think a tail will make my sled kite fly like this:
______________________________________________________________________
After I added a tail to my sled kite, it flew like this:
______________________________________________________________________
What if I shorten the tail, I think it will make my sled kite fly like this
______________________________________________________________________
What if I lengthen the tail, I think it will make my sled kite fly like this:
______________________________________________________________________
Conclusions
If the tail is shortened, then the sled kite will fly like this:
______________________________________________________________________
If the tail is lengthened, then the sled kite will fly like this:
______________________________________________________________________
The students will:
Construct a flying model glider.
Determine weight and balance of a glider.
Standards and Skills Science
Science as Inquiry
Physical Science
Science and Technology
Unifying Concepts and Processes
Science Process Skills
Observing
Measuring
Collecting Data
Inferring
Predicting
Making Models
Controlling Variables
Mathematics
Problem Solving
Reasoning
Prediction
Measurement
Background
unravel the mysteries of flight, the Wright brothers built and
experimented extensively with model gliders. Gliders are airplanes
without motors or a power source.
If the weight of the airplane is not positioned properly, the
airplane will not fly. For example, too much weight in the front
(nose) will cause the airplane to dive toward the ground. The
precise balance of a model glider can be determined by varying
the location of small weights.
Wilbur and Orville also learned that the design of an airplane was
very important. Experimenting with models of different designs
showed that airplanes fly best when the wings, fuselage, and tail
are designed and balanced to interact with each other.
The Wright Flyer was the first airplane to complete a controlled
takeoff and landing. To manage flight direction, airplanes use
control surfaces. Elevators are control surfaces that make the nose
of the airplane pitch up and down. A rudder is used to move the
nose left and right. The Wright Flyer used a technique called wing
warping to begin a turn. On modern airplanes, ailerons are used to
roll the airplane into a turn.
At NASA, model airplanes are used to develop new concepts,
create new designs, and test ideas in aviation. Some models fly in
the air using remote control, while others are tested in wind
tunnels. Information learned from models is an important part of
NASA's aeronautical research programs. The goals of NASA
research are to make airplanes fly safer, perform better, and
become more efficient.
This activity is designed to help students learn about basic aircraft
design and to explore the effects of weight and balance on the
flight characteristics of a model glider. Students use science
process skills to construct and fly the Styrofoam glider.
Management
This activity will take about one hour.
Materials
styrofoam tray
Styrofoam food tray, size 12
Glider template
Plastic knife
Toothpicks
Sand paper or emery board
Binder clips
Paper clip
Markers
Goggles (eye protection)
Part 1
Building the Glider
Preparation
1. Ask students to name some materials that might be used to
build a model glider. Responses might include balsa wood,
paper, cardboard, plastic, and Styrofoam.
2. Gently toss a Styrofoam tray into the air and ask the students
to describe how the tray "flew." The tray does not fly because
it is not designed to fly. Instead of flying (gliding) it drops.
3. Explain to students that Styrofoam is lightweight and strong
which makes it an ideal material to construct model gliders.
Styrofoam trays can be obtained from the meat department of
a grocery store.
Activity
1. Hand out the materials (Student Page 1, tray, template, cutting
and marking devices). Follow the steps listed on the Student
Page.
2. Explain that the template is a guide to cut the wings, fuselage,
and elevator from the Styrofoam. Cutting can be done in a
variety of ways depending on grade level.
For younger students, the teacher or older students can cut out
the parts beforehand and have the students assemble the
glider. For older students, the teacher can demonstrate cutting
out the parts using a serrated plastic knife.
Another way to cut out the parts is by punching a series of
holes approximately 2 mm apart around the outside edge of
each piece and then pushing the piece out. A sharp pencil or
round toothpicks can be used to punch the holes.
3. Use sandpaper or an emery board to sand the edges smooth.
4. Have students assemble the glider by inserting the wings and
elevator into the fuselage slots.
Extension 1. Students may apply personal and finishing touches to the
model by drawing the canopy outline and adding color,
name, aircraft number, squadron logo, icons, or emblems.
2. Ask students to label the parts of an airplane on the model
glider.
3. Civilian aircraft have a letter or letters preceding the aircraft’s
identification number indicating in which country the aircraft
is registered. Mexico uses the letter “X,” Canada uses the
letters “CF.” Aircraft registered with the Federal Aviation
Administration in the United States are assigned identification
numbers that begin with the letter “N.” The airplane’s
identification number is called an N-number. Students may
apply N-numbers to their model, or “register” their model with
other countries.
one edge and across the paper. Mark the 4 cm by 28 cm
area with the letter B. (Illustrations shown not to scale.)
4. Beginning along one end of the line drawn in part 3 above,
measure and mark a point 3 cm from the edge. Continue
marking the edge with additional points each separated by a
5. Repeat step 4 to mark points along the opposite end of the
tissue paper.
6. Using the points, draw a series of lines on the tissue paper.
With scissors, cut along these lines to make strips.
7. Glue edge B of tissue paper to edge A of the loop strip made
in step 2. Allow time for the glue to dry.
8. Use a hole punch to punch three holes equal distance around
the paper ring.
9. Cut 3 pieces of string 30 cm long. Tie one end of each string
to the wind sock at each of the 3 holes.
10. Tie the 3 loose ends of the string to a single paper clip. Add an
additional 30 cm length of string to the paper clip.
11. Test the wind sock by holding the single string in front of a
fan.
12. Tape the wind sock to a wooden dowel and place outside to
monitor wind direction and "speed" (refer to Student Page, the
wind sock "speed" gauge determines the strength of the wind,
but not actual speed). To help determine wind direction, use a
compass to mark north, south, east, and west below the wind
sock (with the dowel in the center).
Discussion
1. What does the wind sock do in the wind? The wind sock
aligns itself with the wind and the strips move toward a
horizontal position.
2. What are some ways wind socks can be used? Pilots preparing
for takeoff or landing observe wind socks to determine wind
direction and speed, because they want to land and takeoff
facing the wind to reduce the takeoff and landing distance.
Meteorologists use wind socks to help forecast the weather.
Some factories that must regulate the amount emissions they
may put into the atmosphere use wind socks monitor wind
conditions, wind speed and direction will have an effect upon
the distance and direction the emissions will travel.
3. Discuss how winds get their names (south, northeast, etc.).
They are named for the direction from which they blow. For
example, a north wind blows from a northerly direction.
Assessment
1. Place a fan on a table, then have students demonstrate wind
direction using the wind sock.
2. Use the activities on the student pages to determine and
record the strength of the wind: calm, a slight breeze, gentle
breeze, moderate breeze, or strong breeze.
Extensions
1. Use garbage bags or nylon fabric instead of tissue paper to
make a wind sock that is more weather resistant.
2. Use different colors of tissue paper to decorate wind socks
3. Make wind socks of different sizes.
4. Place a wind sock in the classroom in different positions and
ask the students to determine if there is air circulation in the
room, and from which direction.
5. Ask the students to write down information about the wind on
a specific day and time. Repeat this activity for several days.
6. In the classroom, obstruct the airflow (using objects, or
students) between the fan and the wind sock and observe how
the wind sock responds. Discuss how objects in nature may
change the flow of wind.
7. Put the wind sock at different distances from the fan
throughout the classroom. Ask the students to observe the
various ways the wind sock responds.
Day:
Time:Weather:
How is the weather related to the wind strength and wind direction?
Air INTERDISCIPLINARY LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Science
• Show that an empty, clear plastic soda bottle is not really empty but
full of air. Place it under water and observe the air bubbles that come
out of the opening.
• Identify objects that are full of air.
• Explain that a wind or breeze is really the movement of air.
• Discuss what would happen to Earth if it were not surrounded by air.
• Research other planets and moons in our solar system that have some
type of air (atmosphere). Could humans live there? Does weather exist
there?
• Collect a variety of natural and synthetic objects. By tossing and
dropping the objects, test which ones stay in the air the longest.
Discuss why certain objects “float” longer than others.
• Observe clouds forming. Point out that clouds are formed by changes
in temperature and the motion of air.
• Watch weather information broadcasts at home or school. Record the
wind information for your locality for a week, also record the type of
weather (hot, cold, stormy, rainy, etc.). Discuss the relationship
between wind and the rest of the weather for the week.
full of air. Place it under water and observe the air bubbles that come
out of the opening.
• Identify objects that are full of air.
• Explain that a wind or breeze is really the movement of air.
• Discuss what would happen to Earth if it were not surrounded by air.
• Research other planets and moons in our solar system that have some
type of air (atmosphere). Could humans live there? Does weather exist
there?
• Collect a variety of natural and synthetic objects. By tossing and
dropping the objects, test which ones stay in the air the longest.
Discuss why certain objects “float” longer than others.
• Observe clouds forming. Point out that clouds are formed by changes
in temperature and the motion of air.
• Watch weather information broadcasts at home or school. Record the
wind information for your locality for a week, also record the type of
weather (hot, cold, stormy, rainy, etc.). Discuss the relationship
between wind and the rest of the weather for the week.
Mathematics
• Measure how much a student can inflate a balloon with one breath of
air. Measure the balloon’s circumference after each breath.
• Fill up various sizes of balloons with air and determine which balloon
stays in the air longer when released. Discuss why.
• Count the number of breaths it takes to inflate a balloon. Compare that
number with other students in the class. Graph and discuss the results.
air. Measure the balloon’s circumference after each breath.
• Fill up various sizes of balloons with air and determine which balloon
stays in the air longer when released. Discuss why.
• Count the number of breaths it takes to inflate a balloon. Compare that
number with other students in the class. Graph and discuss the results.
Fine Arts
• Draw pictures of how things look when the wind (air) blows across
them (examples: trees bend, leaves float, lakes become wavy).• Make paper spirals and hang them in the classroom. The spirals will
move with the air currents in the room.
• Discuss musical instruments that use the force of air (wind instruments
such as flute, saxophone, oboe, horn, and harmonica).
Technology Education
• Design a kite, parachute, or parasail using household items.
• Invent and build an air-driven device using household items.• Explore objects and materials you can use to move air, such as paper
fans, straws, and pinwheels.
• Determine what devices move air in your home and your school
(examples may include air conditioners, heaters, fans in computers and
other equipment).
• Make a collage showing objects and machines from different cultures
that harness the power of air.
• Invite a person whose job deals with air, such as a meteorologist or a
pilot, to speak to the class about his or her profession.
Language Arts
• Read about and discuss air as a force in fantasy, such as in books like
The Three Little Pigs,The Wizard of Oz, Alberto and the Wind, and AWindy Day. Compare air in fact and fantasy.
• Keep a journal for a week or two that keeps record of the direction and
force of the wind near your home and/or school. Also add temperature
and air quality. Do different types of weather come from different
directions?
• Write a story about what happens on a very windy day.
• Write a letter to local meteorologists asking questions about air and
weather.
Health/Physical Education
Try different ways to feel the air:
• Run with streamers.• Place a paper bag on your arm and move your arm back and forth.
• Use a small parachute in the school gymnasium to observe how it
slows down falling objects.
BAG BALLOONS
Objectives
The students will:
Demonstrate that heat can change air.Determine that hot air rises.
Construct a working model of a hot air balloon.
Science
Science as InquiryScience and Technology
Estimation
Communicating
Observing
Hot air balloons are one type of aircraft. (The four categories of
aircraft are airplanes, gliders, rotorcraft, and hot air balloons.) Inthis activity, students construct a working model of a hot air
balloon.
There are two ways a balloon can rise: it can (1) be filled with a
gas that is lighter than air, such as helium, or (2) it can be inflated
with air that is heated sufficiently to make it "lighter" than the air
outside of the balloon.
Helium is the second-lightest element, and the main sources for
helium are natural gas fields (especially those in the states of Texas,
Oklahoma, and Kansas). Heating air makes it less dense, rendering
it essentially "lighter." Gas balloons and hot air balloons float
because they are lighter than the air they displace.
Materials
ActivityPlastic bag ("dry cleaners" bag or 5-gallon trash bag)
Paper clips (used for weight)
Small pieces of paper or stickers (decorations)
String
One hair dryer per classroom (heat source)
Party balloons
Preparation
Show students pictures of hot air balloons. Ask the students to
share their ideas about how the balloons rise. Also ask students toshare what they know about hot air balloons, or what they think
about the uses of hot air balloons.
Show the students a helium balloon. Ask the students to share what they think makes the helium balloon rise when you let go of
the string.
Activity
Plastic bag ("dry cleaners" bag or 5-gallon trash bag)
Paper clips (used for weight)
Small pieces of paper or stickers (decorations)
String
One hair dryer per classroom (heat source)
Party balloons
1. Divide the class into groups of four, and provide each team
with a set of materials.
2. Have the students decorate their plastic bags. Decorations
should be small and light, such as small scraps of paper or
stickers.
3. Have the students tie a string around the top of the plastic bag.
4. Add paper clips evenly spaced around the bottom of the
plastic bag.
5. Have the students hold the plastic bag over the hair dryer (on
the high setting) and let the plastic bag fill with hot air.
6. The plastic bag becomes buoyant as it fills with hot air. When
the students feel the bag tugging, have them release it. The hot
air inside the balloon is lighter than the air in the classroom
and begins to float.
Discussion
1. Have the students identify the different parts of the hot air
balloon: plastic bag—hot air balloon; hair dryer—heat source;paper clips—weights for balance and stability.
2. Ask the students to explain why the hot air balloon works. The
heated. The heated air is lighter than the classroom air and
enables the balloon to float.
3. Ask the stunts to tell how hot air balloons are different from
balloons filled with helium. Helium is a gas that is lighter than
air, even when it's not heated. Helium though, just like heated
air, floats in the surrounding air because it's lighter. Helium
should not be confused with hydrogen, which is an
inflammable gas that was often used in balloons and airships
until the explosion of the airship Hindenburg in 1937.
4. Have the students inflate a party balloon. Ask them to explain
why it does not rise. A person's breath may be warmer than
room temperature, but it is not hot enough to overcome the
weight of the balloon.
Assessment
Using their actual models, have the students explain why their hot
air balloons rise.
Extensions
1. Have the students construct another hot air balloon using
different sizes and types of plastic bags.
2. Have students experiment with paper clips—different sizes
and numbers—to see the effects of weight on their model
balloons.
3. Have the students research the part that balloons played in the
history of flight.
4. Have the students role play a reporter interviewing one of the
Montgolfier brothers. (Refer to background information
included in this guide about the Montgolfier brothers.)
SLED KITE
Objectives
The students will:
Construct and fly a simple sled kite.
Demonstrate how to make the kite fly at varying heights
Construct and fly a simple sled kite.
Demonstrate how to make the kite fly at varying heights
Standards and Skills
Science
Science as InquiryUnifying Concepts and Processes
Observing
Measuring
Predicting
Controlling Variables
Mathematics
Estimation
Measurement
Background
The sled kite in this activity is a model of a type of airfoil called a
on the movement
of air over its shape to generate a lifting force.(Parasails, parafoils,
and paragliders are similar lift-generating devices.)
The NASA Paraglider Research Vehicle (Paresev) was the first flight
vehicle to use the Francis Regallo-designed parawing.The little
glider was built and flown by NASA during the early 1960's to
evaluate the parawing concept, and to determine its suitability to
replace the parachute randing system on the Gemini spacecraft.
Although the parawing was never used on a spacecraft, it
revolutionized the sport of hang gliding. Hang gliders use a
parawing to glide from cliffs or mountain tops.
There are kites of all shapes, sizes, and colors. The sled kite in this
activity is made from a piece of cloth or paper and two drinking
straws. The straws are attached parallel to each other on opposite
sides of the cloth or paper. This arrangement shapes the kite like a
sled when it catches the air. The string attachment points are
placed toward one end of the kite, which causes the opposite end
to hang downward, and stabilizes the kite in flight.
Materials (per kite)
Sled Kite Template
Two drinking straws
Cellophane tape
Scissors
Two 45 cm lengths of string
One 1 m length of string
Metric ruler
Single-hole paper puncher
One paper clip
Markers, crayons, pencils
Selection of paper (crepe, tissue, newspaper)
Management
Approximately 30 minutes are needed to build the sled kite.
Additional time is needed to allow the students to fly and evaluate
their sled kites outside.
Activity
1. Make a copy of the Sled Kite Template. Carefully cut out the
2. Decorate the top of the sled kite using crayons, markers, or
other media.
3. Trim the length of the two drinking straws so they will fit in
the area marked for the straws. Tape them in place.
4. Place two or three pieces of tape in the marked areas covering
the black circles.
5. Using a single-hole paper puncher, carefully punch the two
holes marked by the black circles.
6. Cut two pieces of kite string 45 cm each. Tie a string through
each hole. Tie them tight enough so you do not tear the
paper.
7. Tie the opposite end of both strings to a paper clip.
8. Pick up the 1 m long piece of string. Tie one end of this string
to the other end of the paper clip. Your sled kite is ready
to fly!
9. Outside in a clear area, hold the 1 m length of string and run
with the kite to make it fly.
10. Run slow and run fast, and observe how the kite flies at
different towing speeds.
Discussion
1. Can kites be used to lift objects? Yes, a popular beach activity
uses a large kite (parasail) towed by a speed boat to lift a
person high into the air.
2. Why are kites made of lightweight material? Lightweight
materials insure the kite will weigh less than the "lift"
produced by the kite.
Assessment
1. Have students explain how their kite was built.
2. Have students demonstrate ways to make the kite fly higher,
and to fly lower.
Extensions
1. Have the students decorate their kite using a minimum of
three colors.
2. Record the length of time for each flight.
3. Have the students run a relay with a kite as a means to sustain
its flight.
4. Design a kite and write the directions on how to build it.
5. Add a tail to the sled kite using crepe paper, strips of
newspaper, tissue paper, or garbage bags. Have students
predict what, if any, changes will occur in the kite's flight
characteristics. Conduct flights to test the predictions.
6. Research the history of kites.
Sled Kite
Sled kite flying journal
Date Student name
WeatherSled Kite Flight
What happened when I...
1. When I walked with my sled kite, my sled kite:
______________________________________________________________________
2. When I ran with my sled kite, my sled kite:
______________________________________________________________________
Sled Kite Tail, What if...
What if I add a tail to my sled kite? I think a tail will make my sled kite fly like this:
______________________________________________________________________
After I added a tail to my sled kite, it flew like this:
______________________________________________________________________
What if I shorten the tail, I think it will make my sled kite fly like this
______________________________________________________________________
What if I lengthen the tail, I think it will make my sled kite fly like this:
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
If the tail is lengthened, then the sled kite will fly like this:
______________________________________________________________________
RIGHT FLIGHT
Objectives
RIGHT FLIGHTThe students will:
Construct a flying model glider.
Determine weight and balance of a glider.
Science as Inquiry
Physical Science
Science and Technology
Unifying Concepts and Processes
Science Process Skills
Observing
Measuring
Collecting Data
Inferring
Predicting
Making Models
Controlling Variables
Mathematics
Problem Solving
Reasoning
Prediction
Measurement
On December 17, 1903, two brothers, Wilbur and Orville Wright,
became the first humans to fly a controllable, powered airplane. Tounravel the mysteries of flight, the Wright brothers built and
experimented extensively with model gliders. Gliders are airplanes
without motors or a power source.
Building and flying model gliders helped the Wright brothers learn
and understand the importance of weight and balance in airplanes. 
airplane will not fly. For example, too much weight in the front
(nose) will cause the airplane to dive toward the ground. The
precise balance of a model glider can be determined by varying
the location of small weights.
Wilbur and Orville also learned that the design of an airplane was
very important. Experimenting with models of different designs
showed that airplanes fly best when the wings, fuselage, and tail
are designed and balanced to interact with each other.
The Wright Flyer was the first airplane to complete a controlled
takeoff and landing. To manage flight direction, airplanes use
control surfaces. Elevators are control surfaces that make the nose
of the airplane pitch up and down. A rudder is used to move the
nose left and right. The Wright Flyer used a technique called wing
warping to begin a turn. On modern airplanes, ailerons are used to
roll the airplane into a turn.
At NASA, model airplanes are used to develop new concepts,
create new designs, and test ideas in aviation. Some models fly in
the air using remote control, while others are tested in wind
tunnels. Information learned from models is an important part of
NASA's aeronautical research programs. The goals of NASA
research are to make airplanes fly safer, perform better, and
become more efficient.
This activity is designed to help students learn about basic aircraft
design and to explore the effects of weight and balance on the
flight characteristics of a model glider. Students use science
process skills to construct and fly the Styrofoam glider.
Management
This activity will take about one hour.
Materials
styrofoam tray
Styrofoam food tray, size 12
Glider template
Plastic knife
Toothpicks
Sand paper or emery board
Binder clips
Paper clip
Markers
Goggles (eye protection)
Part 1
Building the Glider
Preparation
1. Ask students to name some materials that might be used to
build a model glider. Responses might include balsa wood,
paper, cardboard, plastic, and Styrofoam.
2. Gently toss a Styrofoam tray into the air and ask the students
to describe how the tray "flew." The tray does not fly because
it is not designed to fly. Instead of flying (gliding) it drops.
3. Explain to students that Styrofoam is lightweight and strong
which makes it an ideal material to construct model gliders.
Styrofoam trays can be obtained from the meat department of
a grocery store.
Activity
1. Hand out the materials (Student Page 1, tray, template, cutting
and marking devices). Follow the steps listed on the Student
Page.
2. Explain that the template is a guide to cut the wings, fuselage,
and elevator from the Styrofoam. Cutting can be done in a
variety of ways depending on grade level.
For younger students, the teacher or older students can cut out
the parts beforehand and have the students assemble the
glider. For older students, the teacher can demonstrate cutting
out the parts using a serrated plastic knife.
Another way to cut out the parts is by punching a series of
holes approximately 2 mm apart around the outside edge of
each piece and then pushing the piece out. A sharp pencil or
round toothpicks can be used to punch the holes.
3. Use sandpaper or an emery board to sand the edges smooth.
4. Have students assemble the glider by inserting the wings and
elevator into the fuselage slots.
Extension 1. Students may apply personal and finishing touches to the
model by drawing the canopy outline and adding color,
name, aircraft number, squadron logo, icons, or emblems.
2. Ask students to label the parts of an airplane on the model
glider.
3. Civilian aircraft have a letter or letters preceding the aircraft’s
identification number indicating in which country the aircraft
is registered. Mexico uses the letter “X,” Canada uses the
letters “CF.” Aircraft registered with the Federal Aviation
Administration in the United States are assigned identification
numbers that begin with the letter “N.” The airplane’s
identification number is called an N-number. Students may
apply N-numbers to their model, or “register” their model with
other countries.
0 comments:
Speak up your mind
Tell us what you're thinking... !